Complex Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

However, the conditions differ slightly, although there is ongoing debate surrounding the classification and definition of CPTSD. This article explores the current understanding of CPTSD, its connection to PTSD, and how these definitions have evolved.

Key Takeaways

• Experts are still debating whether CPTSD is a subtype of PTSD or a standalone disorder. It could be that trauma exists on a spectrum.

• In 2018, the ICD-11 included CPTSD as a separate disorder from PTSD, with 3 key symptoms differentiating between the conditions. However, these overlap with PTSD symptoms in the DSM-5.

• Psychotherapy for CPTSD aligns with standard treatments for PTSD, but this is an emerging area of research.

Understanding CPTSD and PTSD

Complex PTSD is essentially PTSD with three extra symptoms, typically resulting from chronic exposure to trauma. Consequently, both individuals with PTSD and individuals with CPTSD experience the core symptoms of PTSD, which are as follows:

• Intrusive thoughts

• Re-experiencing a traumatic event

• Avoiding reminders of a trauma

• A heightened sense of danger and accompanying emotions

• Experiencing physical threat responses (eg. jumpiness)

While there is debate surrounding the exact classification of CPTSD, with some experts believing it should be a subtype of PTSD, the three additional symptoms of CPTSD that currently differentiate the disorder from PTSD are:

• Difficulties regulating emotions

• Negative self-perception

• Challenges in relationships and closeness

CPTSD vs. PTSD

In 1980, PTSD was classified as a mental health condition in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders, Third Edition (DSM-3). Soon after its publication, Complex PTSD (CPTSD) emerged as a concept, with researchers aiming to classify responses to trauma that went beyond the defined symptoms of PTSD.^[1][2]

However, CPTSD remained officially undefined until 2018, when the International Classification of Diseases, 11th Revision (ICD-11) published the first classification viewed as a separate disorder from PTSD. According to the ICD-11, individuals with CPTSD exhibit the same core symptoms as those who have PTSD, but struggle with an additional three symptoms.^[2]

While there are ongoing debates as to whether CPTSD is a separate condition or a subtype of PTSD, it is widely believed that complex or “chronic” PTSD is more common in people who have experienced prolonged, repeated trauma, particularly during early life. On the other hand, individuals with PTSD are generally thought to have been through a single traumatic event.^[1][2]

The confusion comes in with the most current version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM-5) having not yet classified CPTSD as a standalone disorder, and instead having expanded the definition of PTSD to overlap with some CPTSD symptoms outlined in the ICD-11.^[2]

Other Terms used for CPTSD

There are numerous terms for complex PTSD because the understanding of trauma and its long-term effects has evolved. Additionally, different fields (such as psychology, psychiatry, military studies, and trauma research) have each used their own terminology to describe symptoms that are not defined by the early classification of PTSD:^[3]

• Prolonged Duress Stress Disorder (PDSD)

• Rolling PTSD

• Chronic Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

• Severe Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

• Type 2 PTSD

• Cumulative Stress Disorder

• Complex Trauma Disorder

• Chronic Stress Disorder

Causes of Complex PTSD

C-PTSD is caused by prolonged, repeated, or continuous exposure to trauma, unlike PTSD, which is typically triggered by a single traumatic event. However, the number, severity, or duration of traumas does not always determine whether a person develops PTSD or C-PTSD, which can make diagnosis challenging.^[3]

C-PTSD can develop in individuals who have experienced prolonged trauma, particularly when:^[3]

• Trauma is repeated or ongoing

• Traumatic events occur in childhood or early development

• Traumas are inflicted by someone the person trusts, such as a caregiver or authority figure

Types of Trauma Linked to C-PTSD

While this list is not comprehensive, some common experiences that can lead to C-PTSD include:^[3]

• Childhood abuse or neglect

• Domestic abuse or intimate partner violence

• Sexual, psychological, verbal, emotional, or physical abuse over an extended period

• Being forced into sex work or slavery

• Cult membership or prolonged exposure to controlling environments

• Kidnapping, hostage situations, or being a prisoner of war

• Prolonged exposure to solitary confinement

• Emergency service work (frequent exposure to disasters, deaths, or violence)

• Living under threat or oppression long-term

• Prolonged bullying exposure

• Regularly having to convey distressing or traumatic news to others (e.g. medical professionals or police)

• Observing ongoing abuse or violence towards others

• Prolonged sense of entrapment or helplessness

CPTSD and Combat Veterans

Military personnel and veterans are at a higher risk of developing PTSD or CPTSD due to prolonged exposure to trauma. A 2024 review compared the manifestation of CPTSD and PTSD in active-duty and veteran military populations. Findings showed that CPTSD was more common than PTSD in military and veteran groups, with the following figures:^[4]

• Between around 3.8% and 42.37% of active-duty and military veterans had PTSD.

• CPTSD was found in 5% to just over 80% of military personnel and veterans.

As this is the first systematic review to assess how common CPTSD is in military populations, it highlights the need for improved diagnosis and treatment.^[4]

Symptoms of CPTSD

Both the DSM-5 and ICD-11 feature 3 core symptoms of PTSD, and it is the additional PTSD symptoms in the DSM-5, along with the definition of CPTSD in the ICD-11, that are somewhat of a grey area when it comes to differentiating between PTSD and CPTSD. Therefore, to understand the symptoms of C-PTSD, one must first recognize the symptoms of PTSD.^[2]

PTSD Symptoms

Both the ICD-11 and DSM-5 recognize three key symptom groups as central to PTSD. The DSM-5 lists “changes in cognition and mood” as an additional symptom (with more symptoms within this category). However, these symptoms are included in the definition of CPTSD in the ICD-11.^[2]

The core symptoms of PTSD include:^[2]

• Intrusions or re-experiencing: This involves intrusive unwanted memories, repetitive play that reflects aspects of the traumatic event (in children), flashbacks, nightmares, or intense distress triggered by everyday reminders.

• Avoidance: This includes trying to avoid thoughts, feelings, or memories related to the event, as well as steering clear of places, people, conversations, or situations connected to the trauma.

• Arousal, reactivity, or a persistent sense of threat: Symptoms in this category include irritability, hypervigilance, an exaggerated startle response (jumpiness), difficulty concentrating, and sleep disturbances.

CPTSD Symptoms

In addition to the core symptoms of PTSD listed above, complex PTSD, as defined by the ICD-11, is classified by an additional 3 symptoms frequently categorized as “disturbances in self-organization”. These include:^[2]

• Difficulties with emotional regulation: This may include intense irritability, explosive anger, ongoing sadness, depression, thoughts of suicide, feeling disconnected from reality, or a sense of emotional numbness.

• Negative self-perception: Feelings of being different from others, accompanied by worthlessness, hopelessness, guilt, shame, or a sense of failure linked to the traumatic event.

• Challenges in relationships and closeness: Difficulties forming and maintaining healthy connections and feeling emotionally close to others, stemming from difficulties trusting others and negative self-perception.

However, it's important to recognize that individuals with PTSD may also encounter these symptoms, especially under the “changes in cognition and mood” criteria listed in the DSM-5.^[2][3]

According to the C-PTSD Foundation, the combination of PTSD and the 3 additional C-PTSD symptoms in the ICD-11 (which together form the criteria for CPTSD) may include:^[5]

• Re-experiencing the trauma through nightmares and flashbacks.

• Avoidance of trauma reminders, including places, people, or situations.

• Physical reactions like nausea or dizziness when recalling the trauma.

• Hyperarousal, staying in a constant physical state of high alert.

• A persistent belief that the world is dangerous.

• Loss of trust in oneself or others.

• Sleep disturbances and difficulty concentrating.

• Heightened startle response, especially to loud noises (jumpiness).

• Negative self-perception and feelings of worthlessness.

• Shifts in beliefs and worldview (eg, losing faith in God).

• Struggles with emotional regulation, leading to mood swings or numbness.

• Difficulties forming and maintaining relationships.

• Suicidal thoughts or behaviors.

• Preoccupation with the abuser or seeking revenge.

Symptoms of C-PTSD can vary widely and may evolve. This means that individuals with complex PTSD may suffer from different and changing symptoms. These symptoms can profoundly impact daily life, leading to significant challenges in personal relationships, family dynamics, social interactions, education, work, and other areas of life.^[3]

For individuals whose C-PTSD stems from childhood trauma, additional symptoms may emerge. When caregivers are abusive, children must adapt to their environment, shaping their sense of self, worldview, and relationships with others. As a result, they may develop an insecure and chaotic attachment style rather than a secure one.^[3]

Repeated experiences of mistreatment can lead them to expect abuse from others and, in some cases, believe they are undeserving of care and respect. The role of abusive caregivers in developing an unhealthy attachment style creates familiarity with abuse, which is why many childhood abuse survivors end up in abusive relationships later in life.^[3]

How C-PTSD Affects the Brain and Memory

According to the ICD-11 definition, long-term trauma leads to physical changes in the brain, particularly in areas responsible for memory, emotional regulation, and stress responses. During trauma, the body shifts into survival mode, temporarily freezing functions like digestion, skin repair, emotional regulation, and memory processing.^[3]

This is thought to be the body’s natural mechanism of preparing to fight, “fly”, or freeze. However, the response has an impact on the way memories form, meaning that recollections from traumatic events are often unprocessed \- or stored abnormally. Instead, they are fragmented and stored unpredictably across different areas of the brain.^[3]

In people with PTSD and CPTSD, when the mind attempts to process these fragmented trauma memories (whether triggered by a place, a smell, or a person) it does not recognize them as past events. Instead, the brain perceives itself as being in the midst of the danger in the present moment, resulting in flashbacks, or intrusive thoughts that feel real.^[3]

These flashbacks and re-experiences occur as the mind attempts to process and organize distressing memories. They may also manifest as nightmares and intrusive, unwanted memories. In response to these “false alarms”, the body braces for danger, remaining in a constant state of alertness.^[3]

This leads to increased heart rate and blood pressure, impaired digestion, hypervigilance, difficulty regulating emotions, overwhelming anxiety, and avoidance of trauma reminders, which further prevents proper memory formation. These body responses are designed to occur temporarily when threatened, but with CPTSD, they remain persistent, damaging the brain.^[3]

Diagnosing Complex PTSD

There is currently no standardized test for diagnosing CPTSD, but obtaining a diagnosis is likely to involve a detailed clinical assessment. Mental health professionals may ask questions about symptoms, history of trauma, and family background through interviews or questionnaires. That said, diagnosing CPTSD presents several challenges for doctors.

Since the ICD-11 and DSM-5 use different criteria to diagnose PTSD, some individuals may meet the requirements for one but not the other. Studies have shown that among young people diagnosed with PTSD using either system, less than half meet both sets of criteria. This means a person’s PTSD diagnosis depends on which guidelines their doctor is following, with most clinicians in the United States primarily using the DSM-5.^[2]

This is not to say that the DSM-5 is invalid, but as it was published in 2013 and the ICD-11 in 2018, there is a growing body of evidence recognizing C-PTSD as a separate condition from PTSD. Differentiating between the two may facilitate more precise diagnoses in trauma-affected individuals and show promise in leading to more effective treatment approaches.^[3]

Alternatively, many mental health professionals believe C-PTSD should be part of a broader category of trauma-related disorders that affect both children and adults. Placing C-PTSD on a spectrum would mean grouping it with other conditions that share similar symptoms, ranging from mild to severe cases.^[6]

Some worry that classifying trauma disorders this way might downplay the seriousness of C-PTSD, but it is more likely to help the condition gain official recognition in future versions of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) \- which is used by most mental health practitioners worldwide.^[6]

BPD Misdiagnosis

In addition to confusion surrounding the diagnosis of PTSD and CPTSD, a misdiagnosis of borderline personality disorder (BPD) is also common. This is because the disorder shares many symptoms with complex PTSD, including low self-worth, suicidal thoughts, and intense emotional reactions.^[3]

Both conditions can also be linked to childhood sexual abuse. To further complicate the matter, it is possible to have both BPD and C-PTSD, but if treatment for BPD (focused on emotional regulation and interpersonal relationships) is not effective and an individual has a history of trauma, it may be worth exploring trauma-focused treatments as well.^[3]

To add to the debate about whether C-PTSD is a separate disorder from PTSD, some researchers have theorized that it is simply PTSD occurring alongside borderline personality disorder (BPD). However, while PTSD and BPD frequently co-occur, not all individuals with BPD have PTSD. Both conditions share symptoms, but they differ in key ways:^[6]

• BPD is characterized by an unstable sense of self, swinging between extreme positive and negative self-perceptions, a shifting attachment style, and alternating between idealizing and devaluing others.

• C-PTSD, on the other hand, is defined by a consistently negative self-view and a stable avoidant attachment style, both of which develop due to prolonged trauma.

The diagnosis is further complicated by the fact that BPD is a broad and diverse disorder, often overlapping with conditions like depression, bipolar disorder, and other personality disorders. Additionally, BPD symptoms can change over time. Some experts suggest that BPD may actually fall under a “trauma spectrum disorder” rather than being a distinct personality disorder.^[6]

Risks and Complications

Our brains are designed to process memories, but when someone avoids thinking about their traumatic experiences (or is still experiencing them mentally) the brain struggles to properly sort and store those memories. Instead, the memories remain unprocessed and can resurface unexpectedly as flashbacks, intrusive thoughts, and nightmares. This creates a vicious cycle:^[3]

1. Avoiding trauma memories prevents proper processing.

2. Unprocessed memories keep returning in distressing ways.

3. This leads to more emotional distress, such as anxiety, numbness, and feeling constantly on edge.

4. To cope, the person avoids the memories even more, sometimes turning to substance abuse or behavioral addictions, making it harder for the brain to heal.

Over time, these symptoms can last for years or even decades if left untreated. C-PTSD is a real, physical injury to the brain, not just "overthinking" or a sign of weakness. Many people with C-PTSD manage for years before their symptoms become overwhelming, sometimes worsening over time until daily life becomes unmanageable.^[3]

Additionally, individuals with C-PTSD may experience:

• A deep-seated anticipation of rejection or criticism, due to past trauma, leads individuals to misinterpret social cues and bodily signals as threats.^[7]

• Isolation, alienation, and strained relationships are due to these negative expectations.^[7]

• A higher number of co-occurring conditions compared to those diagnosed with PTSD.^[8]

• Suicidal thoughts or behaviors stem from a desire to escape emotional and mental distress caused by intrusive memories.^[5]

CPTSD and Suicidal Ideation

Research has long shown a strong link between childhood abuse or neglect and a higher risk of suicide. However, less is known about how C-PTSD affects this link. A 2024 study examined adults from different cultural backgrounds with childhood trauma, comparing those with PTSD and C-PTSD to assess links to suicidal thoughts and behaviors.^[9]

The study found that C-PTSD was more strongly linked to suicidality than PTSD in individuals with childhood trauma. It is suggested that the disturbances in self-organization symptoms (like feelings of worthlessness and difficulties with emotional regulation and forming relationships) seem to play a major role in increasing suicide risk.^[9]

Screening for childhood trauma and C-PTSD is crucial in individuals at risk of suicide, as addressing these specific symptoms may help improve treatment and prevention efforts.

The findings suggest that therapy should specifically target the emotional and self-identity struggles that come with C-PTSD to better support those at risk of suicide.^[9]

Crisis Hotlines

Suicide hotlines are confidential phone lines where people in crisis can speak with trained professionals for support, guidance, and assistance during moments of deep distress. These 24/7 hotlines provide immediate help, resources, and referrals to local mental health services.

• American Suicide Hotline: Call 988

• Global Suicide Hotlines: Here is a link to suicide hotlines in various countries around the world. If your country is not on the list, simply Google “24/7 suicide hotline” to find a local phone number.

In-Person Support Groups for Suicidal Thoughts

Suicidal thoughts often stem from being overwhelmed by repeated flashbacks and living in a state of constant alertness to danger, even when things are going well. This can make individuals with CPTSD feel like there is no way out.

Instead of viewing suicide as the only option, connecting with a support group can provide encouragement, hope, coping strategies, and a sense of community. It is of benefit to find a support group tailored to a specific trauma, where survivors can feel a sense of relatability.

To find an in-person support group in your area, simply Google:

• “Your situation (e.g., childhood sexual abuse)” + “support group” + “your area.”

• “Suicide” + “support group” + “your area.”

In cases where there are no in-person meetings in a particular area, there are also many online support groups specifically for those experiencing suicidal thoughts or recovering from past attempts.

Online Support Groups for Suicidal Thoughts

Online support groups can alleviate feelings of isolation often experienced by trauma survivors, by offering safe spaces for sharing experiences and coping strategies, mutual support, and are convenient to access from home:

• Wildflower Alliance – Offers trauma-informed peer support for those in extreme emotional distress, including suicidal ideation. Encourages mutual support, idea-sharing, and meaningful connections.

• Metro Boston Recovery Learning Community – Runs peer-led online groups for those struggling with mental health, suicidal thoughts, and substance use. Also offers spirituality and exercise meetings, as well as community-building ice-breaker sessions.

• Yarrow Collective – A peer-run organization hosting groups focused on mutual aid and lived experience, including an “Alternatives to Suicide” support group and groups for chronic illness, disability, and LGBTQI+ individuals.

• Finding the Message Through the Mess – An online support group for those struggling with suicidal thoughts and survivors of suicide attempts, emphasizing hope and shared experiences.

• I’m Still Here – A support group for those who have contemplated suicide, offering a safe and understanding space for discussion and healing. DeeDee’s Cry also provides support for domestic abuse survivors, teens, and individuals affected by suicide loss or substance recovery.

• Living with Suicide Support Group – A non-judgmental, peer-led space for discussing suicide-related experiences. Kiva Centers also offers specialized support groups, including those for people of color, anger management, chronic illness, and creative expression (poetry, art, and gratitude groups).

• Suicide as a Language of Pain – Provides a compassionate environment where individuals can openly share their struggles and connect with others. The Fold Group also offers “Alternatives2Suicide” and other community-based meetings.

Treatment for CPTSD

​Treatment for both PTSD and CPTSD should adopt a flexible, multi-intervention strategy, aligning with the principles of personalized medicine. The two main psychotherapy treatments for CPTSD are Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) and trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy (TF-CBT).^[2][3][11]

C-PTSD treatment typically incorporates standard PTSD therapies (such as EMDR and TF-CBT) within a phase-based model. This approach often includes additional interventions to help individuals regulate strong emotions, build supportive relationships, and address deep-seated feelings of worthlessness and guilt.^[3]

Compared to PTSD, CPTSD may necessitate a longer treatment duration and benefit from a broader range of interventions, particularly those addressing disturbances in self-organization. These aspects are particularly crucial for those who have experienced early trauma, such as childhood abuse, as they may struggle with trust and a sense of safety in the world.^[3][11]

For many individuals with C-PTSD, the condition is deeply ingrained in their perception of themselves and their environment. For some, treatment can eliminate C-PTSD symptoms, while for others, it significantly reduces their intensity. Regardless of the outcome, therapy provides essential tools to manage symptoms so they no longer dominate daily life.^[3]

Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (TF-CBT)

TF-CBT and exposure therapy are effective in helping individuals with negative self-image and difficulties in relationships. TF-CBT can help to process traumatic memories and reduce avoidance behaviors. Techniques such as gradual exposure to trauma-related thoughts and situations enable patients to confront and diminish the distress associated with these memories.^[13]

TF-CBT uses techniques such as cognitive restructuring to help individuals identify and modify negative thought patterns about themselves and the world. These patterns often include cognitive distortions (irrational thoughts) and dysfunctional core beliefs that develop due to severe, prolonged, and severe traumatic experiences.^[14]

In other words, TF- CBT equips individuals who struggle with intense emotions to identify, challenge, and reframe negative core beliefs stemming from trauma. This helps survivors to build a more balanced and positive self-view. As a result of addressing irrational negative beliefs, an ability to trust can be restored, leading to an improvement in relationships.

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR)

EMDR has been extensively researched and is recognized by various health organizations, including the American Psychological Association, as an effective treatment for PTSD. Studies indicate that EMDR can be as effective as TR-CBT in alleviating PTSD symptoms. However, the exact mechanisms by which EMDR achieves its therapeutic effects are still being studied.^[12]

EMDR therapy in C-PTSD treatment often requires more extensive groundwork. Individuals must learn to regulate their emotions, remain present during trauma processing, and establish trust in their therapist. Since the trauma work itself can be intense, it must be carefully paced to ensure it remains manageable rather than overwhelming.^[3]

For treatment to be effective, individuals must fully process and integrate traumatic memories. EMDR is particularly beneficial as it helps individuals work through and resolve traumatic material. The EMDR process involves recalling traumatic memories while simultaneously engaging in guided eye movements, hand tapping, or auditory tones.^[3]

Alternative Treatments for PTSD

Alternative treatment refers to practices that draw from holistic or non-mainstream methods. When it comes to trauma, two main alternative treatments are based on the theory that trauma can get “stuck” in the body.

Somatic Experiencing (SE) and Tension & Trauma Releasing Exercises (TRE) aim to release trapped trauma from the body, using a variety of techniques. Then there is Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP), which aims to reprogram the mind.

While there is a lack of clinical evidence to support these treatments, many people offer first-hand accounts of how these treatments have changed their lives. You can find more information about each one at the links provided.

• Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) Therapy: Aims to help individuals reprogram their thoughts and behaviors by identifying and reshaping thought patterns or limiting beliefs rooted in trauma. In the case of individuals with CPTSD, this alternative therapy may help to shift deep-seated negative self-concepts and reframe the subconscious fear response.

• Tension & Trauma Releasing Exercises (TRE): Based on the idea that trauma becomes trapped in the body, and is designed to help release deep muscular patterns of stress, tension, and trauma. It involves a series of gentle exercises that activate the body's natural tremor reflex (the same reflex used by prey after escaping a hungry predator), facilitating the release of stored physical and emotional tension.

• Somatic Experiencing (SE): Another body-oriented treatment, classified as a type of psychotherapy. It focuses on increasing awareness of bodily sensations to gently process and resolve stuck fight, flight, or freeze responses. It is thought that by simply noticing sensations, thoughts, or emotional responses (without judgment) can reduce overwhelm and create space for healing.

Medication

There is currently no FDA-approved medication specifically for Complex PTSD. However, some medications approved for PTSD (or related symptoms), such as antidepressants, are often prescribed to help manage symptoms of CPTSD.

However, as CPTSD is more complex than PTSD and involves additional symptoms (like identity disturbance and relational difficulties), treatment usually focuses more on trauma-informed psychotherapy.

Self-Managing Complex PTSD

According to the CPTSD Foundation, ​engaging in regular self-care practices is crucial for healing from the condition. Paying attention to physical, emotional, and mental experiences can assist in obtaining a diagnosis for further treatment and making other self-care adjustments.^[15]

This could look like the body feeling constantly poised for danger, feeling anxious without a rational reason, having flashbacks, or other symptoms. Keeping a journal can aid in tracking patterns and triggers.^[15]

The CPTSD Foundation emphasizes the importance of meditation, social support, and routine.

These techniques can not cure CPTSD and should be used alongside therapy; however, research suggests that they may play a role in overall well-being:

• Meditation: Mindfulness and meditation can help individuals with intrusive thoughts, anxiety, and flashbacks to self-soothe and emotionally regulate. Apps like Insight Timer provide free guided meditations for beginners.^[15]

• Social Support: Having a trusted support system can provide encouragement, reduce isolation, and offer guidance throughout the healing process. The CPTSD Foundation offers 24/7 chat support with other adult trauma survivors.^[15]

• Routine: Establishing a daily routine, including proper sleep, nutrition, hydration, and chores, is crucial for stability and overall well-being. Sticking to a schedule can help individuals re-engage with life despite emotional and physical exhaustion.^[15]

Final Thoughts

Since 1980, when PTSD was first included in the DSM-III, doctors and scientists have recognized that several trauma survivors exhibit symptoms outside of the traditional definition of PTSD. Today, the DSM-5 acknowledges this in its updated classification of PTSD, and in 2018, the ICD-11 published the first inclusion of CPTSD as separate from PTSD.

However, experts are still debating whether CPTSD is a standalone disorder or a subtype of PTSD. To further complicate the matter, CPTSD is often misdiagnosed as BPD, and diagnoses vary depending on whether a mental health professional is using the DSM-5 or ICD-11. That being said, CPTSD is thought to occur with repeated and prolonged exposure to trauma.

While the study of treatment interventions for individuals with CPTSD is in its early stages, some studies have shown that psychotherapies used to treat PTSD (such as TF-CBT and EMDR) are of benefit. With the speed of modern advancement in medicine and psychiatry, it is promising that the debate surrounding the definition of CPTSD will soon be resolved.

Although CPTSD is not classified as a separate condition in the DSM-5, it is a real disorder with concrete and, at times, embodied symptoms. It can deeply affect a person's sense of serenity and safety, relationships, and daily functioning. Fortunately, with the right support, therapy, and self-care, symptoms can be managed effectively, and individuals with CPTSD can lead fulfilling lives.