Eating Disorders

Key Takeaways

• Eating disorders are mental health conditions characterized by unhealthy relationships with food, often characterized by a fixation on weight loss, body image, and controlling food intake.
• The three most common types of eating disorders are anorexia nervosa (restricted food intake), bulimia nervosa (binge eating and purging), and binge eating disorder (uncontrolled overeating without purging).
• Effective treatments include therapy (cognitive behavioral therapy, family-based therapy, interpersonal psychotherapy, and virtual reality therapy), along with medication and nutritional counseling. Specialist eating disorder services offer outpatient and inpatient care.

Understanding Eating Disorders

Eating disorders are distressing and dangerous mental health conditions characterized by an unhealthy relationship with food. There are six different eating disorders outlined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), and more than six other scientifically recognized types that are likely to be included in the next revision. ^{[1] [2]}

The three most common types of eating disorders are: ^{[1] [4]}

• Anorexia nervosa (intentionally restricting food intake, avoiding certain foods)
• Bulimia nervosa (eating large amounts of food and then purging, either by vomiting or using laxatives)
• Binge eating disorder (regularly eating large amounts of food in a short time without purging, often feeling out of control)

No matter which eating disorder a person has, the common link involves abnormal eating habits. While it is normal for people to focus on their health, weight, or appearance, some individuals become overly preoccupied with losing weight, body image (how they perceive their body shape), or controlling their eating in some way. ^{[1] [3] [4]}

Many eating disorders also involve an intense fear of eating or the consequences of eating, along with compulsive exercise. When weight, body image, or eating habits turn into an obsession, it is generally a symptom of an eating disorder. These disorders can significantly affect a person psychologically, emotionally, socially, and physically - with some cases even leading to death. ^{[1] [3] [4]}

Behaviors surrounding eating disorders can start to mirror the patterns seen in addictive behaviors. Emerging research is currently exploring the link between eating disorders and behavioral addictions, where individuals are unable to resist urges to engage in non-substance related activities (such as gambling, gaming, online shopping, or sex), even when these cause harm. ^{[4] [5]}

Eating disorders typically begin during adolescence but often persist into adulthood, and are linked to a high risk of multiple co-occurring health conditions and a higher chance of early death. Fortunately, treatment (usually a combination of therapy, nutritional support, and medication) can help. ^{[1] [6]}

How Common are Eating Disorders?

The American Psychiatric Association states that overall, the different types of eating disorders listed in the DSM-5 impact up to 5% of the population. Across the globe, the three most common eating disorders are anorexia nervosa (affecting 1-4% of women), bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder (which together affect 1 to 2% of women). ^{[1] [4]}

However, a 2021 systematic review that pooled multiple studies from international databases suggests that the actual number of people affected by eating disorders may have been underestimated. The review states that many large studies did not include all types of eating disorders, and that newer forms have shown much higher rates. ^[7]

It also confirms that eating disorders are particularly common among females in Western countries, although these disorders can affect people of any gender or age. Overall, eating disorders are multifaceted conditions that are becoming increasingly common, and updated diagnostic criteria are needed to better identify and assess the full range of these conditions. ^{[1] [4] [7]}

Is Body Dysmorphia an Eating Disorder?

Body dysmorphia (officially referred to as body dysmorphic disorder in the DSM-5) is not classified as an eating disorder in the manual. Instead, it is listed under the “obsessive-compulsive and related disorders” category. However, body dysmorphia and eating disorders frequently overlap and can even co-occur. ^[2]

Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is an unhealthy obsession with one or more perceived bodily flaws (often minor or not an accurate reflection of reality) and can include concerns with weight. BDD symptoms include repetitive behaviors like checking one’s appearance in a mirror, excessive grooming, or seeking reassurance in regards to one’s appearance. ^[2]

On the other hand, eating disorders tend to manifest as behaviors related to controlling body weight and shape (such as restricting, purging, or compulsively exercising), often driven by a fear of gaining weight or a desire for thinness. That being said, both BDD and eating disorders involve a distorted perception of the body and significant body dissatisfaction. ^[2]

Eating disorders and BDD tend to involve ritualistic behaviors (such as checking the scale multiple times a day for those with eating disorders, or checking one’s reflection for those with body dysmorphia). Some individuals are diagnosed with both disorders, as the conditions can co-occur. ^[2]

Types of Eating Disorders

While some eating disorders are well known, others are less widely recognized but can be just as dangerous. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders currently lists six types of eating disorders, but researchers have acknowledged and explored more than six newly-recognized types of disordered eating.

DSM-5 Eating Disorders

Anorexia Nervosa

Anorexia is characterized by self-starvation, significant weight loss, and a body mass index (BMI) below 18.5. The disorder involves a distorted perception of body weight or size, and an intense fear of gaining weight. Individuals with anorexia often continue to restrict their food intake despite desiring weight gain, making it one of the most life-threatening eating disorders. ^{[1] [4]}

Bulimia Nervosa

Individuals with bulimia often swing between restrictive and binge eating (typically involving high-calorie "forbidden" foods consumed in secret). Binges occur at least once a week and are followed by compensatory behaviors like vomiting, fasting, laxative use, or excessive exercise to prevent weight gain. Despite this, their weight may range from underweight to obese. ^[4]

Binge Eating Disorder

People with binge eating disorder struggle with episodes of eating large amounts of food within a short time frame (until uncomfortably full), accompanied by a sense of powerlessness and distress. However, unlike bulimia, binge eating disorder is not followed by regular compensatory behaviors like purging, fasting, or excessive exercise. ^[4]

Avoidant Restrictive Food Intake Disorder (ARFID)

ARFID is an eating disorder characterized by extremely selective eating or food avoidance that leads to inadequate nutrition and a failure to meet energy needs. The disorder is not driven by concerns about body weight or shape, and can stem from low appetite, sensitivities to food texture, smell, or appearance, or fear of negative consequences like choking or nausea. ^[4]

Pica

Pica is an eating disorder where a person repeatedly eats non-food items without nutritional value (such as dirt, chalk, or paper). Pica is only diagnosed if this behavior is inappropriate for an individual’s developmental stage or not culturally accepted. Pica is often seen in individuals with autism or intellectual disabilities, but can also occur in typically developing individuals. ^[4]

Rumination Disorder

Rumination disorder is characterized by repeated regurgitation and either re-swallowing, re-chewing, or spitting out food after regurgitating it. While this eating disorder may occur alongside other mental health conditions, it is diagnosed separately when the behavior is severe enough to require clinical attention. ^[4]

Other Specified Feeding and Eating Disorder (OSFED)

The “other specified feeding and eating disorder” category in the DSM-5 is designed to diagnose disordered eating behaviors that cause significant distress or impairment but do not meet the full criteria for other eating disorders. This may be due to factors like lower frequency of behaviors or not meeting specific weight thresholds. ^[4]

Newly Recognized Eating Disorders

In addition to the disorders listed in the DSM-5, emerging research recognizes the following types of eating disorders:

Diabulimia

Diabulimia refers to a disordered eating pattern in which individuals with type 1 diabetes deliberately skip or reduce insulin doses in order to lose weight. The emotional and psychological burden of managing diabetes, known as diabetes distress, is believed to play a role in the development of this condition. ^[8]

Bigorexia Nervosa

Bigorexia is a debated condition, with some considering it a type of feeding or eating disorder, while others view it as a subtype of body dysmorphic disorder. Individuals with this condition have a persistent preoccupation with not being muscular enough and may engage in strict or unusual eating habits, misuse supplements, and spend excessive time exercising. ^{[9] [10]}

Night Eating Syndrome (NES)

Night eating syndrome (NES) is an eating disorder marked by excessive food consumption from the evening into the night. Individuals with NES typically consume at least 25% of their daily calories after dinner and frequently awaken to eat. Symptoms include those of anorexia in the morning and a belief that it is not possible to sleep without eating. ^[11]

Orthorexia

Orthorexia is characterized by an intense and obsessive focus on eating only "healthy" and "pure" foods, with an emphasis on the cleanliness and quality of the diet. People with orthorexia follow strict dietary rules, often excluding entire food groups, and become overly fixated on the sourcing, preparation, and nutritional value of their food. ^[12]

Drunkorexia

The term "Drunkorexia" refers to the use of extreme weight-control methods (such as restricting food intake or over-exercising) to offset calories consumed during planned binge drinking. This risky behavior has gained traction in recent years and is now recognized as a significant public health concern due to its growing prevalence. ^[13]

Pregorexia

Pregorexia is an eating disorder seen in pregnant women who engage in extreme dieting and exercise to avoid weight gain. It is often driven by body image distortion, fear of pregnancy-related changes, and anxiety related to gaining weight. These behaviors can pose serious risks to both maternal and fetal health. ^[14]

Common Symptoms of Eating Disorders

Due to the sheer number of eating disorders (both in the DSM-5 and those that are currently emerging as topics of research), it is not possible to list the symptoms for each one in this article. However, the symptoms for anorexia, bulimia, and binge eating disorder are listed below to provide a clearer understanding of the most commonly recognized eating disorders. ^[4]

Anorexia Nervosa Symptoms

Anorexia presents in two primary forms, referred to as subtypes: ^[4]

• Restricting type: Characterized by weight loss achieved mainly through fasting, dieting, or excessive exercise
• Purging/binge-eating type: Involves intermittent episodes of binge eating and/or compensatory purging behaviors (restricted food intake, excessive exercise, purging)

Prolonged starvation or purging can lead to various physical and psychological symptoms, including: ^[4]

• Cessation of menstruation
• Lightheadedness or fainting caused by fluid loss and dehydration
• Fragile nails and hair that break easily
• Increased sensitivity to cold
• Reduced muscle strength and muscle atrophy (loss of muscle mass)
• Acid reflux and heartburn, especially in individuals who purge by vomiting
• Serious constipation, bloating, and a prolonged feeling of fullness following meals
• Stress fractures (small cracks or severe bruising within a bone that develop slowly) from excessive exercise and reduced bone density
• Psychological symptoms such as depression, anxiety, irritability, impaired concentration, and fatigue
• Heart conditions, such as bradycardia, heart failure, and structural damagehttps://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2828266

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Bulimia Nervosa Symptoms

• Regular disappearances to the bathroom directly after eating
• Substantial quantities of food are missing, or numerous discarded wrappers and containers are present without explanation
• Ongoing sore throat
• Puffiness or swelling in the cheeks due to enlarged salivary glands
• Tooth decay due to stomach acid eroding tooth enamel during purging
• Frequent heartburn and acid reflux
• Overuse of diet pills or laxatives
• Repeated episodes of unexplained diarrhea
• Misuse of water pills (diuretics)
• Lightheadedness or fainting caused by dehydration from frequent purging episodes

Binge Eating Disorder Symptoms

• Eating abnormally rapidly
• Eating to the point of discomfort
• Consuming substantial quantities of food when not hungry
• Eating in isolation due to shame about the amount of food being consumed
• Large amounts of food may be gone without reason, or there may be many empty wrappers and containers with no clear explanation
• Experiencing self-disgust, depression, or intense guilt after a binge

Causes of Eating Disorders

The causes of eating disorders are complex and not fully understood, but research indicates that the disorders arise from a combination of risk factors such as biological, psychological, environmental, and social influences. ^[1]

There is emerging research exploring the link between social media and ultra-processed foods in relation to the onset of eating disorders. Overall, recent findings highlight the importance of ongoing investigations into risk factors that may cause eating disorders. ^[1]

Biological and Psychological Factors

Biological and psychological factors include genetics and heritability, abnormal brain structure and function, as well as dysregulated brain signals that overlap with other psychiatric disorders. The most common mental health conditions to co-occur with eating disorders are mood and anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorders (OCD), and substance use disorders. ^{[1] [4]}

Additionally, young people living with chronic health conditions are at a higher risk of developing eating disorders and disordered eating behaviors. This increased vulnerability may stem from the specific challenges they face related to body image, food and eating habits, as well as their mental health and self-esteem. ^[15]

Environmental and Social Influences

Environmental and social pressures (such as family dynamics and cultural ideals around physical form) also play significant roles in the development of eating disorders. A recent review has indicated that social media use may contribute to body image concerns and increase the risk of eating disorder symptoms among young people in both the East and West. ^{[1] [16]}

Emerging research suggests that modern dietary patterns (especially the rise in ultra-processed foods) may significantly impact the metabolic and brain-body pathways involved in eating disorders. These dietary changes, coinciding with the obesity epidemic, have been linked to altered insulin and glucose responses, appetite regulation, and changes in the microbiome. ^[6]

Are they Preventable?

In recent decades, eating disorder research has advanced considerably, with a growing emphasis on prevention strategies. Body-positive curricula (e.g. support groups, journaling, affirmations, or guided reflections) are increasingly being used to develop healthier body image and reduce the risk of developing eating disorders. ^[1]

However, despite this progress, there are currently no well-established animal models for anorexia, bulimia, or binge eating disorder. In other words, scientists face challenges in researching preventions for eating disorders due to the fact that animals do not experience body image concerns, guilt, or social pressure in the same way that humans do. ^[1]

That being said, emerging research has found a strong link between social media use and body dissatisfaction, disordered eating, as well as poor mental health resulting from internalization of thin or fit ideals, social comparison, and self-objectification. Consequently, spending less time on social media (or cutting it out entirely) could potentially prevent these issues from developing. ^[16]

Alternatively, strong social media literacy and body appreciation appear to buffer against harm. Social media literacy is a form of body-positive curricula used by professionals to prevent eating disorders (or to help maintain recovery) by teaching individuals to critically evaluate and deconstruct media messages regarding physical appearance. ^{[1] [16]}

Tips for Preventing Eating Disorders

Due to the complex interplay of biological, psychological, environmental, and social factors that are thought to cause eating disorders, it may not be possible to prevent them. However, while the efficacy of the following suggestions remains unproven, these techniques can only serve to enhance mental health:

• Encourage the development of a positive body image from an early age by introducing children to diverse role models and using body-neutral or body-positive language.

• Promote a balanced attitude toward food by emphasizing nourishment and flexibility, rather than rigid eating rules or categorizing foods as “good” or “bad.”

• Create safe spaces in the home and schools where young people feel safe to express emotions and discuss self-worth.

• Take proactive steps to challenge weight stigma and prevent bullying, particularly within educational environments.

• Reduce exposure to diet culture and refrain from making comments (positive or negative) about body size, shape, or eating habits - especially around children.

• Prioritize early mental health support, recognizing that conditions like anxiety, depression, and OCD can increase vulnerability to eating disorders.

Risks and Complications

Eating disorders are serious mental health conditions that can be life-threatening. They often come with an increased risk of medical complications and other mental health challenges, factors that can further complicate recovery. However, with timely intervention, eating disorders are treatable, and early diagnosis and care significantly improve the chances of full recovery. ^[3]

Medical Conditions

Medical complications that can result from malnutrition or purging behaviors include: ^[4]

• Heart rhythm abnormalities, particularly in individuals who purge
• Kidney issues
• Seizures
• Esophageal tears (ruptures in the tube that connects the mouth to the stomach)
• Gastrointestinal issues, including gastric rupture

Psychiatric Complications

There are a number of mental health complications linked to eating disorders, including: ^[3]

• Depression
• Anxiety
• Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders
• Alcohol use disorder
• Substance use disorders
• Tendency to self-harm
• Suicidal thoughts or attempts
• Impaired functioning in school, work, relationships, and social interactions

Diagnosing Eating Disorders

Eating disorders are highly diverse conditions, meaning that even individuals diagnosed with the same disorder differ greatly in their symptoms. That being said, the process of diagnosing these conditions involves reviewing physical symptoms, eating habits, and body image-related behaviors. ^[17]

Acquiring a diagnosis for an eating disorder typically involves seeing a general practitioner for a physical exam (and potentially lab tests), as well as a mental health professional. To obtain an accurate diagnosis, it is recommended to see a psychologist or psychiatrist with a special interest in eating disorders.

The mental health professional can assess whether an individual has an eating disorder through interviews or written assessments. During an interview, the healthcare provider will ask questions related to body image, eating habits, and behaviors surrounding these areas. They will also enquire about a person’s thoughts and emotions.

Tests and Assessments for Eating Disorders

There are numerous tests and assessments for eating disorders, including both interviews and self-report questionnaires. Here are a few of the self-report assessments endorsed by current research that can be used to diagnose eating disorders: ^[18]

Multidimensional Body–Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ)

A 69-question inventory evaluating attitudes toward physical self with 10 subscales (including appearance evaluation, fitness evaluation, and body satisfaction).

Body Shape Questionnaire (BSQ)

A 34-item assessment focusing on body shape concerns, particularly relevant for anorexia and bulimia nervosa.

Dietary Rules Inventory (DRI)

A 28-question scale assessing rule-based eating behaviors, with subscales on food selection, social eating, and caloric level.

Emotional Eating Scale (EES)

A 25-item assessment evaluating emotional triggers for eating, including anger, anxiety, and depression.

Emotional Appetite Questionnaire (EMAQ)

A 22-question scale assessing emotional responses (positive and negative) that lead to eating.

Exercise and Eating Disorders (EED)

A 22-item assessment measuring exercise-related cognitions in eating disorders, covering intentions, consequences, and bodily sensations.

The Compulsive Exercise Test (CET)

A 24-item scale assessing compulsive exercise behaviors in eating disorders, with subscales focusing on avoidance, mood improvement, and exercise rigidity.

Eating Disorder Flexibility Index (EDFLIX)

A 36-item assessment measuring cognitive flexibility related to eating disorders, with subscales on general, food/exercise, and body/weight flexibility.

Treatment for Eating Disorders

There are a number of effective treatments for eating disorders, though individuals respond differently to each method. Unfortunately, it is not uncommon for individuals with eating disorders to resist treatment, deny the existence of issues surrounding eating or weight, or to feel extremely anxious about changing their eating habits. ^{[1] [4]}

However, with appropriate medical support, recovery is possible, and many people successfully restore balanced eating habits and regain well-being of the body, mind, and soul. Approaches such as therapy, medication, and nutrition counseling are the primary treatments for eating disorders, while in more severe cases, specialist eating disorder services are recommended. ^{[1] [4] [18]}

Therapy

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): A widely used approach that helps to challenge harmful thought patterns and behaviors related to food, body image, control, and self-esteem. This form of therapy is most effective in adults. ^[1][6]

Family-Based Therapy (FBT): Often used with adolescents, this therapy includes the family in the recovery process and empowers loved ones to support eating and weight restoration in struggling family members. ^{[1] [6]}

Interpersonal Psychotherapy (IPT): Focuses on improving interpersonal relationships and social functioning, which can help reduce eating disorder symptoms. ^[1]

Virtual Reality Therapy (VRT): An emerging treatment that uses simulated environments to address body image concerns and emotional responses to food and eating. ^[1]

Medication

Different eating disorders require different medications, as do co-occuring conditions. That said, there are four main types of pharmaceuticals that a mental healthcare provider is likely to prescribe: ^[1]

• Antidepressants
• Anti-anxiety medications
• Antipsychotics
• Mood stabilizers

Nutrition Counseling

Nutrition counselling is a therapeutic process often used alongside psychotherapy and medication. This treatment involves a registered dietitian or nutritionist working with an individual to develop a balanced relationship with food (healthy eating habits, challenging disordered thoughts, setting recovery goals).

Specialist Eating Disorder Services

Encouragingly, research indicates that specialist eating disorder services can successfully treat individuals through outpatient and day programs. Inpatient care is typically reserved for those with more severe symptoms and is of great benefit. In most cases, only a short hospital stay is needed, especially when followed by referrals to evidence-based outpatient treatments. ^[19]

When to Seek Help

Eating disorders often begin with a diet and end with an obsession. In light of this, it can be difficult to pinpoint the exact moment when a focus on healthy living becomes psychologically and physically damaging. That said, the best time to seek help is in the early stages of an eating disorder, so as to prevent the condition from worsening and causing serious complications.

It is a good idea to enlist professional support if you or a loved one has experienced:

• Fear of eating, or of gaining weight
• Feeling that eating is not deserved, or punishing oneself for eating in some way
• Significant obsession with social media posts surrounding weight loss, fitness, or what others eat in a day
• Regular, excessive guilt or shame related to eating
• An inability to control urges to binge or restrict
• Stressful obsessions surrounding food (whether the focus is on purity of source, calories, macronutrients, or restricting intake)
• Excessive exercising without consuming enough food to meet the recommended daily intake (RDI) for your height, weight, gender, age, and activity level
• Eating in isolation or avoiding social events due to a fear of being obliged to eat
• Creating rules around eating, including cutting out food groups or types unrelated to ethical considerations
• Loss of appetite, digestive issues, fatigue, headaches, and other health conditions related to restricting/purging/binging

Long-Term Eating Disorder Management

Sadly, research spanning over fifty years shows that less than 50% of individuals with eating disorders achieve full remission. Around 30% continue to experience lingering symptoms, and 20% develop a chronic condition. One of the reasons that eating disorder recovery is so difficult, is the fact that food is essential to life, and so interacting with it is unavoidable. ^[1]

Managing an eating disorder long-term involves much more than just therapy and medication, although these treatments form the foundation of successful recovery. Recovering from an eating disorder is a lifelong process that requires developing a healthy relationship with food, establishing sustainable routines, and learning to recognize and manage triggers.

Avoid Calorie Counting

Although many people who are in recovery from an eating disorder often know how many calories are in foods, it is best to avoid calorie counting, as this can trigger obsession. Instead, focus on eating three square meals a day, keeping in mind that deviating from this can lead to a spiral of self-destructive behavior.

View Every Meal as a Celebration of Your Life

As difficult as it may be to imagine, it is possible to heal your relationship with food and actually learn to enjoy it. Try to make your recovery fun by experimenting with new healthy foods and recipes, and keep in mind that taking care of yourself in this way is an act of self-love that you should be proud of.

Stay Flexible and Balanced

Avoid demonizing any foods or food groups, and aim to eat 80% whole foods and 20% treats or processed foods. This will help to reduce anxiety, rigidity, or binging, and promote a balanced approach to maintaining health and happiness. You are allowed to treat yourself with delicious food, and you deserve to enjoy food and nourish your body.

Learn About the Role of Nutrition in Wellness

Nutrition is not only important for the body and soul, but for the mind too. The brain needs nourishment to function, and years of restriction can impair memory. An individual recovering from anorexia reflected, "There are large chunks of my life I have no recollection of due to being sick for so many years." Rebuilding that function takes time, patience, and proper fueling.

Practice Mindful Eating

Mindfulness is living in the present moment, and it is advisable to practice this when you eat. Instead of rushing meals or eating on the go, take time to enjoy the food you are eating and to pay attention to when your body is full. By satisfying your senses in this way, you are less likely to binge from feelings of deprivation.

Recognizing the Risk of Relapse

Relapse is a common part of many eating disorder recovery journeys and points toward the fact that current strategies require adjustment. To prevent relapse, it is important to be vigilant of personal triggers (such as renewed body-checking, social media, restriction, or obsessive thoughts). If you notice yourself becoming obsessive, inform your psychologist immediately.

Managing Triggers

Understanding personal triggers (such as stress, loneliness, boredom, or exposure to diet culture) is essential. Developing strategies such as deep breathing, attending a support group, journaling, listening to affirmations, or engaging in a meaningful activity can help. Additionally, “taking thoughts captive,” by choosing to focus on life-affirming perspectives, can help.

Social Boundaries

Additionally, it is important to limit exposure to triggering conversations. “Engaging in topics about weight is something I'm not interested in and shut down quite quickly,” a young female who is living in recovery noted. It is important to inform your loved ones that “Comments about the body are unwarranted and counterintuitive, whether positive or negative.”

Establishing Structured Routines

A consistent daily routine plays a protective role in recovery. As one person in recovery shared, "Routine in recovery is very important. I am quite rigid about routine. If I don't have a specific routine, I can fall off the bandwagon." This might include waking up at the same time each day, scheduling meals and tasks, and sticking to a regular bedtime.

Final Thoughts

Eating disorders represent a spectrum of serious mental health conditions characterized by abnormal eating behaviors. These conditions, ranging from the well-known anorexia and bulimia to emerging categories like orthorexia and drunkorexia, highlight the diverse ways in which an unhealthy relationship with food or body image can manifest.

While the path to recovery can be challenging, effective treatments such as therapy, nutritional counseling, and medication, as well as specialized eating disorder services, can improve outlooks for those with eating disorders. Beyond this, there are management techniques that can help to restore healthy eating patterns, improve a person’s overall well-being and allow those recovering from eating disorders to live fulfilling lives.

Author

Star Gorven

Star Gorven is a wellness and mental health writer with a talent for crafting evocative and evidence-based content across a wide range of topics. Her work blends analytical research with imagination and personality, offering thoughtful insights drawn from her exploration of subjects such as psychology, philosophy, spirituality, and holistic wellbeing.

Activity History - Last updated: March 19, 2026, Published date: March 19, 2026

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Reviewer

Jennifer Brown

Dr. Jennifer Brown is dual board-certified in family medicine and obesity medicine. She currently works for Amwell Medical Group, providing virtual primary care services, including mental health treatment.

Activity History - Medically reviewed on March 27, 2026 and last checked on March 19, 2026