Key Takeaways
Postpartum Depression (PPD) is more intense and long-lasting than postpartum blues and can begin during pregnancy or anytime within the first year after childbirth.
Symptoms include persistent sadness, anxiety, sleep issues, low energy, and difficulty bonding with the baby. In severe cases, symptoms may include suicidal thoughts or attempts.
Treatment options include psychotherapy (especially cognitive-behavioral therapy), electroconvulsive therapy, antidepressants, support groups, and lifestyle changes.
Understanding Postpartum Depression
The arrival of a newborn child can trigger a wide range of emotions, from euphoria and excitement to stress and fear. But for some mothers, it can also lead to an unexpected spell of depression, or the “baby blues”. This phenomenon affects 4 in 5 new mothers and typically involves mood swings, anxiety, weeping, and trouble sleeping.[1]
The symptoms of baby blues, or postpartum blues, tend to emerge a few days after delivery and generally ease within 10 to 14 days. However, some women experience a more serious and longer-lasting condition called postpartum depression (PPD). Sometimes referred to as peripartum depression, it can begin during pregnancy and continue after the birth of the child.[1]
Unlike the short-lived postpartum blues, postpartum depression is more intense, often manifesting in ongoing sadness, despondence, low self-worth, sleep disturbances, heightened anxiety, and challenges in forming a connection with the baby. In rare cases, a more severe condition known as postpartum psychosis may also develop.[1][2]
In many ways, postpartum depression shares common features with depression that can occur at other times in a new mother’s life. However, it also has some distinct differences, as pregnancy and the postpartum period involve significant physical, emotional, and hormonal changes.[1]
Postpartum depression isn’t a sign of personal failure or a weak character. Instead, it is a medical condition that can happen to anyone (including a parent who has not given birth) after a baby is born. Fortunately, treatment can improve symptoms and help caregivers to reconnect with themselves and their baby.
Can Fathers Get Postpartum Depression?
Research shows that fathers of newborn babies can also experience postpartum depression. They may feel sad, irritable, and aware of restricted emotions, or notice shifts in their appetite and sleeping habits - symptoms similar to those seen in mothers with postpartum depression. Studies have found that PPD affects between 8% and 10% of new fathers.[3]
Fathers with a personal history of depression, financial stress, or those experiencing hormonal changes, are at higher risk of developing what is referred to as paternal postpartum depression. Just like maternal postpartum depression, it can negatively impact a couple’s relationship and a child’s development.[3]
If your partner has just given birth and you are experiencing symptoms of depression (during the pregnancy or after the baby has been born), it is important to seek support from a mental health provider. It is thought that the same treatments and management techniques that help mothers with postpartum depression can also be effective for fathers or other partners.[3]
Prevalence of Postpartum Depression
According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), mood episodes may begin either during pregnancy or after childbirth. Around 50% of postpartum depression actually starts before childbirth and is technically referred to as peripartum depression.[4]
Between conception and childbirth, approximately 9% of mothers experience a serious depressive episode. The estimated prevalence of such episodes between birth and a year after birth is slightly under 7%. Both perinatal and postpartum depression are loosely termed postpartum depression, as the effects tend to last well after delivery.[4]
In terms of how many women are affected by the condition overall, a 2022 comprehensive review found that nearly 13% to 19% of new mothers experience PPD. Research has also revealed a link between the baby blues and postpartum depression, finding that over 27% of women with postpartum blues go on to develop the disorder.[1][2]
Risk Factors for Postpartum Depression
While the exact cause of PPD is unknown, there are several risk factors which may contribute to the onset of postpartum depression. These include psychological factors, pregnancy or childbirth complications, social factors, lifestyle influences, and a family history of mental health conditions:[1][2]
Psychological factors: A history of depressive or anxious periods, depression or anxiety during pregnancy, postpartum blues, negative feelings toward the newborn child, premenstrual syndrome, disappointment regarding the baby’s sex, a neurotic personality, excessive stress from life events, a poor marital relationship, low self-esteem, and a history of sexual abuse.
Pregnancy or childbirth factors: Hospitalization during pregnancy, high-risk pregnancies, and traumatic birth experiences (such as an emergency cesarean section, premature birth, low birth weight, and more) may contribute to the onset of PPD.
Social factors: Limited social support, smoking, exposure to domestic violence (including sexual, physical, or verbal abuse), low socio-economic or single marital status, an unwanted pregnancy, a difficult infant temperament, and becoming pregnant at a young age are all associated with a higher risk of depression during pregnancy or after giving birth.
Lifestyle factors: Poor nutrition, low levels of physical activity, vitamin B6 deficiencies, and sleep deprivation can all contribute to postpartum depression.
Family history of mental health conditions: Recent research suggests that having a family history of psychiatric conditions increases the risk of postpartum depression. This may be influenced by both genetic predisposition and early-life environmental factors.
Symptoms of Postpartum Depression
As postpartum blues and postpartum depression have similar symptoms (with a low risk of postpartum psychosis), here is a table to compare prevalence, onset and duration, as well as symptoms based on scientific research:[1][2][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]
Feature | Postpartum Blues | Postpartum Depression | Postpartum Psychosis |
Prevalence | 4 out of 5 new mothers | An estimated 1 in 7 new mothers | Fewer than 2 out of 1000 new mothers |
Onset and Duration | Typically begins within a few days after birth and lasts up to 2 weeks | May begin during pregnancy or after birth and can last for years | Often begins 3 to 10 days after birth and may take up to a year to recover |
Mood Symptoms | Sadness, tearfulness, anxiety, mood swings | Persistent low mood, feelings of guilt or worthlessness, irritability | Extreme mood instability, paranoia |
Cognitive Symptoms | Confusion, poor concentration, forgetfulness | Poor concentration, indecisive | Disorientation, delusions, hallucinations (auditory or visual) |
Physical Symptoms | Insomnia, loss of appetite, headache | Insomnia or excessive sleep (hypersomnia), loss of appetite | Severe insomnia |
Energy and Activity | Fatigue | Loss of interest in activities, low energy | Agitation or unusual behavior |
Risk to Self or Infant | May affect the health of the mother or infant | Suicidal thoughts or thoughts of death. Infants may face delays in their development | May include suicidal or homicidal thoughts, often regarding harming the infant |
Bonding with Infant | Usually unaffected, with one study theorizing that insufficient bonding during the baby blues is linked to the onset of PPD | Disconnected from the infant (poor bonding) | May involve rejection or fear of the infant |
Signs of Postpartum Depression
Postpartum blues shares many symptoms with postpartum depression, such as frequent crying, low mood, irritability, sleep disturbances, anxiety, and changes in appetite. However, these symptoms are milder and do not meet the criteria for a major depressive disorder. Postpartum blues typically begin 2 to 3 days after childbirth and go away within about two weeks.[2]
On the other hand, postpartum depression can last for years and has additional symptoms manifesting as feelings of guilt and worthlessness, as well as thoughts related to death or suicide. Poor mental health can impact a mother’s ability to bond with her child, potentially impacting the infant’s long-term development and mental well-being.[11]
Although postpartum blues is much more common than postpartum depression, it is important to screen new mothers at every post-birth visit for mood disorders, as well as for signs of suicide risk or psychosis - both of which are medical emergencies and require urgent care to protect both mother and baby.[2]
How Long Does Postpartum Depression Last?
According to a recent comprehensive review, postpartum depression lasts for up to two years after childbirth in around 30% of cases. Approximately half of affected women experience major depression during this time, though the severity and pattern can vary.[1]
Unfortunately, some women with postpartum depression may have ongoing moderate symptoms, while others may face consistently severe depression, and more still may experience repeated episodes of significant depressive symptoms.[1]
Causes of Postpartum Depression
Even though research into the causes of postpartum depression has increased, researchers have yet to fully understand how it affects the brain. Growing evidence suggests that mental health conditions like PPD involve complex changes in how different parts of the brain work together, however, the exact mechanisms are not yet understood.[1]
That being said, a 2025 study has stated that several factors may play a role in the development of postpartum mood disorders. In addition to risk factors such as psychological influences, pregnancy and childbirth complications, genetic vulnerabilities, and emotional or social stress, the study identifies hormonal shifts as a contributing factor.[2]
The study highlights that after childbirth, the body experiences a sudden drop in estrogen and progesterone levels. Combined with the stress and sleep loss that often come with caring for a newborn, this can increase the risk of postpartum blues or trigger depression in those who are more sensitive to these changes.[2]
In addition to hormonal changes, the study suggests that disruptions in other body systems may also be involved, including how the body handles energy, as well as fluctuations in amino acid cycles and brain chemistry. However, while this may help to explain postpartum depression in new mothers, it does not explain its emergence in fathers or parents who have not given birth.[2]
Diagnosing Postpartum Depression
According to the DSM-5, depression related to childbirth can begin during pregnancy (perinatal depression) or within the first month after delivery (postpartum depression). Despite technicalities, both conditions are frequently referred to as postpartum depression.[1]
The International Classification of Diseases (ICD) defines postpartum depression as a condition that starts within six weeks of giving birth. Despite this, most doctors recognize that symptoms can begin during pregnancy or during the first 12 months after delivery.[1][2]
The symptoms of postpartum depression are the same as those of depression that has no link to pregnancy, but they occur during or after pregnancy. Anxiety is also commonly reported. In more severe cases, affected individuals may experience psychotic features, such as delusions or hallucinations.[2]
To meet the criteria for diagnosis, individuals must experience five of the following symptoms nearly every day for a minimum of two weeks:[2]
Feeling sad or down for most of the day (depression)
Losing interest in activities once enjoyed (anhedonia)
Trouble sleeping or sleeping too much (insomnia or hypersomnia)
Slow movements or agitation
Feelings of guilt or worthlessness
Low energy or constant fatigue
Thoughts of death, suicide, or suicide attempts
Difficulty concentrating or making decisions
Noticeable changes in appetite or weight (e.g., a 5% weight change in one month)
Out of the 5 symptoms that lead to a diagnosis, 1 symptom must be either a consistently low mood or a noticeable loss of interest or pleasure. Additionally, the symptoms must reflect a change from the person's usual behavior.[2]
These symptoms often cause significant emotional distress and interfere with daily functioning. For a formal diagnosis, the symptoms must not be due to drug use, another medical condition, or be part of a different psychiatric disorder such as bipolar disorder.[2]
Postpartum Depression Assessment
There are a number of assessments that can be used to identify postpartum depression. Here are a few of the more commonly used tests that have been suggested by recent scientific research:[1][2]
Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS): A self-report questionnaire that focuses on the emotional symptoms of depression.
EPDS Subscales: Shorter versions of the EPDS (three-item and seven-item subscales) developed for quicker assessments.
Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9): A nine-item questionnaire that screens for depression. The assessment includes questions on emotional, cognitive, and physical symptoms.
Patient Health Questionnaire-2 (PHQ-2):A brief, two-question screening tool derived from the first two items of the PHQ-9, used to identify persistent low mood and loss of interest in previously entertaining activities.
Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HAM-D): A depression screening tool not specific to postpartum depression, its reliability varies across studies.
Bipolar Spectrum Diagnostic Scale (BSDS): A tool for identifying bipolar disorder and related mood disorders, which may also be useful during the perinatal period.
Structured Clinical Interview (DSM-IV):A useful diagnostic tool in the form of an interview, often used alongside other clinical assessments and information.
Challenges in Assessing and Diagnosing
Around 80% of new mothers experience emotional changes in the first few days after giving birth. Additionally, many report other symptoms of depression, such as changes in appetite, difficulty sleeping, and low energy. These overlapping symptoms can make it challenging to differentiate between normal emotional adjustment post childbirth and clinical depression.[2]
Furthermore, as many as 50% of cases go undetected, often because of the stigma attached to having a mental health condition and the subsequent hesitation of individuals to share their symptoms. Another factor that poses a challenge in diagnosing postpartum depression is the overlap between the condition and other mood disorders.[1]
In addition to difficulties in classifying symptoms, there is ongoing debate about the exact timing of when postpartum depression begins. According to the DSM-5, it includes episodes that start during pregnancy or within 1 month of birth. Alternatively, the ICD-11 postulates that postpartum depression is defined as beginning within the first six weeks after childbirth.[2]
However, many studies have updated the guidelines to include the first six months after childbirth as the period when postpartum depression can begin, while some extend this timeframe to include up to one year after delivery. In clinical settings, the condition is often considered to occur during pregnancy or at any point within a year of childbirth.[2]
Treatment and Management
Various therapeutic approaches are used to treat postpartum depression, most of which are adapted from treatments for major depressive disorder. Common treatment options include therapy and support groups.[1][2]
While no medications have been specifically approved for PPD to date, many antidepressants are considered safe for use during pregnancy and breastfeeding, and as such, antidepressants are another common treatment option.[1][2]
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
Although research is limited on which psychotherapy modalities are best for postpartum depression, there are numerous forms of therapy used to treat major depression. Cognitive and behavioral therapy is typically considered the gold standard treatment for depression.[12]
CBT is widely-recognized as an effective treatment for major depression, and works by helping individuals recognize and challenge irrational beliefs and negative thinking patterns that contribute to the disorder.[12]
In many cases, depression can also be treated using physical (somatic) therapies. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is the most recognized option for treatment-resistant depression, with strong evidence supporting both its safety and effectiveness.[12]
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)
ECT involves applying carefully controlled electrical currents to the brain to produce a short, medically induced seizure while the patient is under general anesthesia. There is strong evidence that shows that the treatment is more effective than medication for major depression.[12]
ECT has been found to lower hospital readmission rates and ease the severity of depression, ultimately improving quality of life. ECT is commonly recommended for individuals with severe or psychotic depression, those at high risk of suicide, and for patients who are pregnant.[12]
Support Groups
Studies have long suggested that support groups may play a valuable role in improving mental health outcomes. A 2019 research paper looking at the role of support groups in alleviating symptoms of postpartum depression confirmed that the results are promising.[13]
The paper noted that these programs help expand social connections and, consistent with previous findings, are well-received by participants. Peer-support programs offer a safe and non-stigmatizing way for mothers to adjust to their new roles.[13]
Postpartum Support International (PSI) offers over 50 different weekly online support groups for a diverse range of pregnant women, mothers, fathers, and parents. The groups are designed for those facing birth trauma, parenting after loss, and perinatal or postpartum mood support.
If the times available for PSI support groups do not suit you, or you would prefer an in-person support group, searching online for local or virtual postpartum depression support groups can be helpful.
Medication
The following medications are often prescribed by clinicians to treat severe cases of postpartum depression:
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs): These antidepressants are considered the first-line treatment for moderate to severe PPD, with Sertraline showing the most promise for improving PPD in clinical trials.
Serotonin Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors (SNRIs): There is limited data available to support the effectiveness of these antidepressants, although early research into Venlafaxine and Desvenlafaxine looks promising.
Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCAs): Nortriptyline is the TCA currently used for PPD, although there is limited evidence of conclusive efficacy in randomized trials.
SSRIs and TCAs are also used to help prevent the recurrence of postpartum depression in high-risk women, although more studies are needed to support their effectiveness.
Recovering from Postpartum Depression
When the symptoms of postpartum depression are resolved, the likelihood of behavioral and psychiatric issues developing in a child is reduced. Consequently, it is important to not only seek treatment in the form of therapy, support groups, and medication, but to make a few lifestyle adjustments as well.[1]
Most clinical guidelines for depression (including those from the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence) recommend regular physical activity as part of managing depression and preventing relapse. Exercise also contributes to overall improvements in quality of life.[12]
Nutrition and mental health are inextricably linked, with many studies showing a connection between ultra-processed foods and mental health conditions such as depression. While research in this area is still emerging, it is worth prioritizing whole foods for a balanced mood.
Taking vitamin B6 and omega-3 supplements high in EPA during pregnancy or after birth may also help to ease symptoms of depression. Supplementing with DHA in healthy pregnant women may also lower the risk of developing postpartum depression.[1][14]
Immediate Support Resources
If you ever have thoughts of harming yourself or your baby, seek help right away. Ask your partner or a trusted loved one to help care for your baby, and contact your local emergency services for immediate support. (You can find the telephone number for the nearest hospital on Google and should be able to ask for an ambulance if required).
If the desire to harm yourself or your child are severe, consider booking into a psychiatric facility so that you can be monitored while you are treated with medication. Look for an institution that offers therapy and support groups as well, as these are also beneficial. Only contact a psychologist or psychiatrist when you are more stable to avoid waiting periods.
Final Thoughts
Postpartum depression (PPD) is a common but serious condition that can affect mothers, fathers, and other parents during pregnancy or after birth. While its symptoms often mirror major depression or the baby blues, the diagnosis criteria for PPD is different. However, due to the disorder’s overlap with other conditions, postpartum depression is often misdiagnosed.
That said, if you suspect you may have PPD, a combination of evidence-based treatments (including therapy, medication, support groups, and lifestyle changes) show promise in improving outcomes. With timely intervention and compassionate care, recovery is possible, benefiting not only the parent but also the healthy development of the child.
References
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A Comprehensive Review on Postpartum Depression
Suryawanshi, O., & Pajai, S. (2022). A Comprehensive Review on Postpartum Depression. Cureus, 14(12). https://www.cureus.com/articles/121148-a-comprehensive-review-on-postpartum-depression#!/
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Perinatal Depression
Carlson, K., Azhar, Y., Siddiqui, W., & Mughal, S. (2025). Perinatal Depression. National Library of Medicine; StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519070/
Source: StatPearls Publishing
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Postpartum Depression in Men
Scarff, J. R. (2019). Postpartum Depression in Men. Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience, 16(5-6), 11. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6659987/
Source: Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience
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Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). https://psychiatryonline.org/doi/book/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
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Postpartum depression
Pearlstein, T., Howard, M., Salisbury, A., & Zlotnick, C. (2009). Postpartum depression. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 200(4), 357–364. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0002937808022710
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Maternity Blues: A Narrative Review
Tosto, V., Ceccobelli, M., Lucarini, E., Tortorella, A., Gerli, S., Parazzini, F., & Favilli, A. (2023). Maternity Blues: A Narrative Review. Journal of Personalized Medicine, 13(1), 154. https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4426/13/1/154
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Development and validation of the maternal blues scale through bonding attachments in predicting postpartum blues
Manurung, S., & Setyowati, S. (2021). Development and validation of the maternal blues scale through bonding attachments in predicting postpartum blues. Malaysian Family Physician, 16(1), 64–74. https://e-mfp.org/wp-content/uploads/V16N1-OA-Development-and-validation-of-the-maternal.pdf
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Analysis of Psychological Problems of Postpartum Blues: Literature Review
Miranie Safaringga, Wiwit Fetrisia, Fani Syinthia Rahmi, & Febry Mutiariami Dahlan. (2023). Analysis of Psychological Problems of Postpartum Blues: Literature Review. International Health Sciences Journal, 1(1), 51–57. https://ihsjournal.id/index.php/go/article/view/34
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Perinatal Depression: Challenges and Opportunities
Dagher, R. K., Bruckheim, H. E., Colpe, L. J., Edwards, E., & White, D. B. (2021). Perinatal Depression: Challenges and Opportunities. Journal of Women's Health, 30(2). https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/jwh.2020.8862
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Postpartum Psychosis
Friedman, S. H., Reed, E., & Ross, N. E. (2023). Postpartum Psychosis. Current Psychiatry Reports, 25(2). https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11920-022-01406-4
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Separation Anxiety among Kindergarten Children and its Association with Parental Socialization
Samar Jreisat. (2023). Separation Anxiety among Kindergarten Children and its Association with Parental Socialization. Health Psychology Research, 11. https://healthpsychologyresearch.openmedicalpublishing.org/article/75363-separation-anxiety-among-kindergarten-children-and-its-association-with-parental-socialization
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Major Depressive disorder: Validated Treatments and Future Challenges
Karrouri, R., Hammani, Z., Benjelloun, R., & Otheman, Y. (2021). Major Depressive disorder: Validated Treatments and Future Challenges. World Journal of Clinical Cases, 9(31), 9350–9367. https://www.wjgnet.com/2307-8960/full/v9/i31/9350.htm
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Peer-support intervention for postpartum depression: Participant satisfaction and program effectiveness
Prevatt, B.-S., Lowder, E. M., & Desmarais, S. L. (2018). Peer-support intervention for postpartum depression: Participant satisfaction and program effectiveness. Midwifery, 64(64), 38–47. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0266613818301566?via%3Dihub
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Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in prevention and treatment of maternal depression: Putative mechanism and recommendation
Hsu, M.-C., Tung, C.-Y., & Chen, H.-E. (2018). Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in prevention and treatment of maternal depression: Putative mechanism and recommendation. Journal of Affective Disorders, 238, 47–61. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0165032717320141?via%3Dihub
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Author
Star GorvenStar Gorven is a wellness and mental health writer with a talent for crafting evocative and evidence-based content across a wide range of topics. Her work blends analytical research with imagination and personality, offering thoughtful insights drawn from her exploration of subjects such as psychology, philosophy, spirituality, and holistic wellbeing.
Activity History - Last updated: April 10, 2026, Published date: March 19, 2026
Reviewer
Dr. Jennifer Brown is dual board-certified in family medicine and obesity medicine. She currently works for Amwell Medical Group, providing virtual primary care services, including mental health treatment.
Activity History - Medically reviewed on April 10, 2026 and last checked on April 10, 2026
